Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Pesticide shopping experience:

1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Pesticide offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Pesticide at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.

2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about

3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Pesticide? Wrong! If the Pesticide is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.

4. Questions - Got a question about Pesticide then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....

5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Pesticide? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Pesticide and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.

6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Pesticide wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.

7. Feedback - happy with your Pesticide then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.

8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Pesticide site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site

9. Contact - got a question about Pesticide, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.

10. Payment - ready to pay for your Pesticide, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.

spreading pesticide.A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used for preventing, controlling, or lessening the damage caused by a pest (organism).US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24, 2007), What is a pesticide? epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest (animal). Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector (biology) for disease or cause a nuisance. Many pesticides are poisonous to humans.

Types of Pesticides use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used herbicides in the United States. (From USGS Pesticide Use Maps)There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.

Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides, although the distinction can sometimes blur.

Broad-spectrum pesticides are those that kill an array of species, while narrow-spectrum, or selective pesticides only kill a small group of species.Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.

A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. This movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers may kill needed pollinators such as bees.

Most pesticides work by poisoning pests.Cornell University. Toxicity of pesticides. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 4. Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.

Uses and benefits Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful. The benefits of pesticides: A story worth telling. Purdue.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can prevent vehicular accidents by clearing roadside trees and brush, which may block visibility for drivers. They can also kill invasive weeds in parks and wilderness areas which may cause natural environment damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.Helfrich, LA, Weigmann, DL, Hipkins, P, and Stinson, ER (June 1996), Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mold can damage structures such as houses. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable and may increase quality of life and protect property and the environment.

Pesticides save farmers money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the US, farmers get an estimated four-fold return on money they spend on pesticides.Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

In 2006, the World Health Organization suggested the resumption of the limited use of DDT to fight malaria.World Health Organization (September 15, 2006), WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria. Retrieved on September 13, 2007. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where mosquitoes are prevalent. Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT." Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and typhus.

In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools. About 70% of the pesticides sold in the US are used in agriculture.

History Since before 2500 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, Mercury (element) and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables.Miller, GT (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5

In 1939, Paul Hermann Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world.

In the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread.Daly H, Doyen JT, and Purcell AH III (1998), Introduction to insect biology and diversity, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. Chapter 14, Pages 279-300. Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era."Graeme Murphy (December 1 2005), Resistance Management - Pesticide Rotation. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2.5 million tons (2.3 million metric tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year. Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing.

In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by killing mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects.Lobe, J (Sept 16, 2006), "WHO urges DDT for malaria control Strategies," Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

Regulation In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. Willson, Harold R (February 23, 1996), Pesticide Regulations. University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. For example, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class.

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985.

Two other efforts to regulate international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among countries participating in the initiative. Both agreements operate on a voluntary basis.

Reading and following label directions is required by law in countries such as the US and in limited parts of the rest of the world.

In the US, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was first passed in 1947, giving the United States Department of Agriculture responsibility for regulating pesticides. In 1972, FIFRA underwent a major revision and transferred responsibility of pesticide regulation to the Environmental Protection Agency and shifted emphasis to protection of the environment and public health.

Environmental effects Use of pesticides can have unintended effects on the environment. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including nontarget species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food. Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded, when it is sprayed aerially, and when it is sprayed into water to kill algae.Tashkent (1998), Part 1. Conditions and provisions for developing a national strategy for biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan of Republic of Uzbekistan. Prepared by the National Biodiversity Strategy Project Steering Committee with the Financial Assistance of The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and Technical Assistance of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved on September 17, 2007. The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the particular chemical's properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its vapor pressure, its water solubility, and its resistance to being broken down over time. Factors in the soil, such as its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect the amount of pesticide that will leave the area.

Some pesticides contribute to global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer.Reynolds, JD (1997), International pesticide trade: Is there any hope for the effective regulation of controlled substances? Florida State University Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law, Volume 131. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

Air Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them.Cornell University. Pesticides in the environment. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 6. Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on 2007-10-11. Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilisation and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife.National Park Service. US Department of the Interior. (August 1, 2006), Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Park: Air quality -- Airborne synthetic chemicals. Nps.gov. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas,US Environmental Protection Agency (September 11th, 2007), Pesticide registration (PR) notice 2001-X Draft: Spray and dust drift label statements for pesticide products. Epa.gov. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. or pesticides may adhesion to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles.Environment Canada (September-October 2001), Agricultural pesticides and the atmosphere. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does. Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas.Science Daily (November 19, 1999), Evergreens help block spread of pesticide from crop fields. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.

Pesticides that are sprayed onto fields and used to fumigation soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called ozone, accounting for an estimated 6% of the total ozone production.UC IPM Online. (August 11, 2006), What’s up, Doc? Maybe less air pollution. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.

Water In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US Geological Survey.Gilliom, RJ, Barbash, JE, Crawford, GG, Hamilton, PA, Martin, JD, Nakagaki, N, Nowell, LH, Scott, JC, Stackelberg, PE, Thelin, GP, and Wolock, DM (February 15, 2007), The Quality of our nation’s waters: Pesticides in the nation’s streams and ground water, 1992–2001. Chapter 1, Page 4. US Geological Survey. Retrieved on September 13, 2007. Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater. Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater.Bingham, S (2007), Pesticides in rivers and groundwater. Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 2007-10-12.

Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.Hogan,, CM, Patmore L, Latshaw, G, Seidman, H, et al. (1973), Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, United States Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California.

There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or leach, through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect.States of Jersey (2007), Environmental protection and pesticide use. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. They may also be carried to water by soil erosion.Papendick RI, Elliott LF, and Dahlgren RB (1986), Environmental consequences of modern production agriculture: How can alternative agriculture address these issues and concerns? American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, Volume 1, Issue 1, Pages 3-10. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. Factors that affect a pesticide's ability to contaminate water include its water solubility, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, soil type, presence of a growing crop, and the method used to apply the chemical.Pedersen, TL (June 1997), Pesticide residues in drinking water. extoxnet.orst.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency sets Maximum Contamination Levels, or maximum allowable concentrations for individual pesticides in public bodies of water.Similarly, the government of the United Kingdom sets Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur.Bingham, S (2007), Pesticides exceeding environmental quality standards (EQS). The Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. The European Union also regulates maximum concentrations of pesticides in water.

Soil Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.USEPA (2007), Sources of common contaminants and their health effects. Epa.gov. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.

The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.

Plants Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil.Rockets, Rusty (June 8, 2007), Down On The Farm? Yields, Nutrients And Soil Quality. Scienceagogo.com. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertiliser every year.

Pesticide toxicity to bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that polinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder,{{cite web|author=Hackenberg D |url=http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc |title=Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007 |publisher=Plattform Imkerinnen — Austria |accessdate=2007-03-27 |date=2007-03-14 |language=English -->{{cite news| author = Wells, M | title = Vanishing bees threaten US crops | work = www.bbc.co.uk | publisher = ''[BBC News'' | date = March 11, 2007 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm | accessdate = 2007-09-19 | language = English -->{{cite web|author=Haefeker, Walter|url=http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/german_bee_monitoring.htm |title=Betrayed and sold out – German bee monitoring |accessdate=2007-10-10 |date=2000-08-12 |language=English -->{{cite web|author=Zeissloff, Eric|url=http://www.beekeeping.com/artikel/imidacloprid_1.htm |title=Schadet imidacloprid den bienen |accessdate=2007-10-10 |date=2001 |language=German--> in which worker bees from a [Beehive (beekeeping) or [Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill [honeybees, which act as pollinators. The [USDA and [USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.

Persistent organic pollutants Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and thus remain in the environment for years.Ritter L, Solomon KR, and Forget J, Stemeroff M, and O'Leary C. Persistent organic pollutants: An Assessment Report on: DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dioxins and Furans. Prepared for The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). Retrieved on September 16, 2007. Some pesticides, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene, are considered POPs. POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. The chemicals also have the ability to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, and can bioconcentrate (i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humansCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Pesticides. cdc.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. by disruption in the endocrine system, reproductive system, and immune systems; cancer; neurobehavioral disorders, infertility and Mutagenesis, although very little is currently known about these chronic effects. Some POPs have been banned, while others continue to be used.

Animals Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to biota, and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their Biodiversity Action Plans.

Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food after spraying, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.

Widespread application of pesticides can eliminate food sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet, or starve. Poisoning from pesticides can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides. Some pesticides can bioaccumulation, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that about 20% of the endangered species and threatened species in the US are jeopardized by use of pesticides.

Birds Birds are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use. Rachel Carson's landmark book Silent Spring dealt with the topic of loss of bird species due to bioaccumulation of pesticides in their tissues. There is evidence that birds are continuing to be harmed by pesticide use. In the farmland of United Kingdom, populations of ten different species of birds have declined by 10 million breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, a phenomenon thought to have resulted from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed.Kerbs JR, Wilson JD, Bradbury RB, and Siriwardena GM (August 12, 1999), The second silent spring. Commentary in Nature, Volume 400, Pages 611-612. Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds are now threatened. Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used. In another example, some types of fungicides used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill off earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.

Some pesticides come in granular form, and birds an other wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide is enough to kill a small bird. Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. Wildlife & pesticides - Peanuts. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 2007-10-11.

The herbicide paraquat, when sprayed onto bird eggs, causes growth abnormalities in embryos and reduces the number of chicks that hatch successfully, but most herbicides do not directly cause much harm to birds. Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that over 67 million birds are killed by pesticides each year in the US.

Aquatic life Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.Toughill K (1999), The summer the rivers died: Toxic runoff from potato farms is poisoning P.E.I. Originally published in Toronto Star Atlantic Canada Bureau. Retrieved on September 17, 2007. For example, in Montague P.E.I., nine "fish kills" happened in one year: every fish, snake, and snail was killed in a river called Sutherland's Hole near potato farms from which herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides ran off after heavy rains. Pesticide-related fish kills are frequently unreported and likely underestimated.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants rot and use up the water's oxygen, suffocating the fish. Some herbicides, such as copper sulfite, that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at concentrations similar to those used to kill the plants. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease, and increased failure to avoid predators.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill off plants on which fish depend for their habitat.

Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton, the main source of food for young fish.Pesticide Action Network North America (June 4, 1999), Pesticides threaten birds and fish in California. PANUPS. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. Pesticides can kill off the insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that between 6 and 14 million fish are killed by pesticides each year in the US.

The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.

Amphibians Some scientists believe that certain common pesticides already exist at levels capable of killing amphibians in California.ScienceDaily (June 25, 2007), Breakdown products of widely used pesticides are acutely lethal to amphibians, study finds. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 17, 2007. They warn that the breakdown products of these pesticides can be 10 to 100 times more toxic to amphibians than the original pesticides. Direct contact of sprays of some pesticides (either by drift from nearby applications or accidental or deliberate sprays) can be highly lethal to amphibians. University of Pittsburgh A Canadian study showed that exposing tadpoles to endosulfan, an organochloride pesticide at levels that are likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.Raloff, J (September 5, 1998) Common pesticide clobbers amphibians. Science News, Volume 154, Number 10, Page 150. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.

US scientists have found that some pesticides used in farming disrupt the nervous systems of frogs, and that use of these pesticides is correlated with a decline in the population of frogs in the Sierra Nevada (U.S.).Cone M (December 6, 2000), A wind-borne threat to Sierra frogs: A study finds that pesticides used on farms in the San Joaquin Valley damage the nervous systems of amphibians in Yosemite and elsewhere. L.A. Times Retrieved on September 17, 2007. In the past several decades, decline in amphibian populations has been occurring all over the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part. Being downwind from agricultural land on which pesticides are used has been linked to the decline in population of threatened species frog species in California.ScienceDaily (November 28, 2002), More evidence to link pesticide use with amphibian decline. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 17, 2007.

Mixtures of multiple pesticides appear to have a cumulative toxic effect on frogs. Tadpoles from ponds with multiple pesticides present in the water take longer to metamorphosis into frogs and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators. Science Daily (February 3, 2006), Pesticide combinations imperil frogs, probably contribute to amphibian decline. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

In Minnesota, pesticide use has been causally linked to congenital deformities in frogs such as eye, mouth, and limb malformations.Meersman T (October 25, 1999), Studies link frog deformities to pesticides. Star Tribune Retrieved on September 18, 2007. Researchers in California found that similar deformities in frogs in the US and Canada may have been caused by breakdown products from pesticides which themselves did not pose a threat.Science Daily (May 4, 1998), Pesticides linked to widespread cases of deformed frogs. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-12.

The herbicide atrazine has been shown to turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their ability to reproduce.

Pest resistance Pests may Evolution to become resistant to pesticides. Many pests will initially be very susceptible to pesticides, but some with slight variations in their genetic makeup are resistant and therefore survive to reproduce. Through natural selection, the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide.

Pest resistance to a pesticide is commonly managed through pesticide rotation, which involves alternating among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance.

Tankmixing pesticides is the combination of two or more pesticides with different modes of action in order to improve individual pesticide application results and delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance.

Pest rebound and secondary pest outbreaks Non-target organisms, organisms that the pesticides are not intended to kill, can be severely impacted by use of the chemicals. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a beneficial insect predator or parasite, an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. A study comparing biological pest control and use of pyrethroid insecticide for diamondback moths, a major cabbage family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect.Muckenfuss AE, Shepard BM, Ferrer ER, Natural mortality of diamondback moth in coastal South Carolina Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center. Likewise, pesticides sprayed in an effort to control adult mosquitoes, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors. This phenomenon, wherein the population of a pest species rebounds to equal or greater numbers than it had before pesticide use, is called pest resurgence and can be linked to elimination of predators and other natural enemies of the pest.

Loss of predator species can also lead to a related phenomenon called secondary pest outbreaks, an increase in problems from species which were not originally very damaging pests due to loss of their predators or parasites. An estimated third of the 300 most damaging insects in the US were originally secondary pests and only became a major problem after the use of pesticides. In both pest resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks, the natural enemies have been found to be more susceptible to the pesticides than the pests themselves, in some cases causing the pest population to be higher than it was before the use of pesticide.

Health effects Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use.US Environmental Protection Agency (August 30, 2007), Pesticides: Health and Safety. National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3.

Farmers and workers There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe Pesticide poisoning, about 18,000 of whom die.

Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government.OneWorld Radio (December 4, 2005), Interview. oneworld.net. WRENmedia. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

Organophosphate pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.Jaga K, Dharmani C. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Pan American Journal of Public Health Volume 14, Issue 3, Pages 171–185. PMID 14653904. These are associated with acute health problems for workers that handle the chemicals, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689. Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatology conditions,Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Mellen BG. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health, Volume 9, Issue 3, Pages 221–232. PMID 12970952. O'Malley MA. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. Occupational Medicine Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 327–345. PMID 9220489. cancer,Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 105, Issue 10, Pages 1068–1077. PMID 9349828. Clinical depression, neurologic deficits,Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longsteth WT, Checkoway H. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1):91–95. miscarriages, and birth defects.Engel LS, O'Meara ES, Schwartz SM. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, Volume 26, Issue 3, Pages 193–198. PMID 10901110.Cordes DH, Rea DF. 1988. Health hazards of farming. American Family Physician 38:233–243 Das R, Steege A, Baron S, Beckman J, Harrison R. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 303–312. PMID 11783860.Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 107, Supplement 3, Pages 409–419. PMID 10346990.Garcia AM. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, Volume 44, Issue 6, Pages 584–594. PMID 14635235.
Moses M. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37:115–130 Schwartz DA, Newsum LA, Heifetz RM. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 12:51–54 Stallones L, Beseler C. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97 Strong, LL, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Islas I. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606 Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL. 2003. Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642 Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers.Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.Kamel F, Hoppin JA. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect 112:950–958.

Consumers There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled (see Pesticide#Pesticide residues in food, below). In the US, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the US EPA and are considered safe.US Environmental Protection Agency (March 27, 2007), Pesticides and food: What the pesticide residue limits are on food. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its break-down products, the amount and frequency of pesticide application, and how much of the pesticide (i.e., the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared.US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24th, 2007), Setting tolerances for pesticide residues in foods. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water. Rabideau, Christine L. Multiple pesticide exposure: Immunotoxicty and oxidative tress 2001

A new study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides. Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s


A study published by the United States National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.National Research Council (1993), Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-04875-3. Retrieved on 2007-10-11. A study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphate pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with organic food (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.

In the US, the National Academy of Sciences estimates that between 4,000 and 20,000 cases of cancer are caused per year by pesticide residues in food in allowable amounts.

The Pesticide Data Program, a program started by the United States Department of Agriculture is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:{{cite paper| author = Pesticide Data Program | title = Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005 | version = | publisher = USDA | date = February 2006 | url = http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate =2007-09-15 -->

For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:{| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center"! Fresh Fruit and
Vegetables !! Number of
Samples Analyzed !! Samples with
Residues Detected !! Percent of
Samples with
Detections !! Different
Pesticides
Detected !! Different
Residues
Detected !! Total Residue
Detections|-align="center"! Apples| 774 || 727 || 98 || 33 || 41 || 2,619|-align="center"! Lettuce| 743 || 657 || 88 || 47 || 57 || 1,985|-align="center"! Pears| 741 || 643 || 87 || 31 || 35 || 1,309|-align="center"! Orange Juice| 186 || 93 || 50 || 3 || 3 || 94|}

They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that: These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent contained more than 1 pesticide. - page 34.

The Environmental Working Group used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the United States Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.FoodNews (2006), Test Results: Complete Data Set. Environmental Working Group, ewg.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

The public Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public.US Environmental Protection Agency (December 1999), Spray drift of pesticides. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

The Bhopal disaster occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, intermediate chemical in the production of some pesticides. The disaster immediately killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000 deaths.{{cite web ] | title =1984: Hundreds die in Bhopal chemical accident | work = On This Day: 3 December | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2698000/2698709.stm-->

Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects of pesticides. Noyes, K Banish Pesticides from your garden. charityguide.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.Natural Resources Defense Council (October 1998), Health hazards of pesticides.

Peer-reviewed studies now suggest Neurotoxicity effects on developing animals from organophosphate pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, lower birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The EPA finished a 10 year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. Melissa Lee Phillips (2006 October), Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children? Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 114, Issue 10, Pages A592–A595.Pulaski A (May 26, 2006), EPA workers blast agency's rulings on deadly pesticides: Letter sent to EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson by unions representing 9,00 spreading pesticide.A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used for preventing, controlling, or lessening the damage caused by a pest (organism).US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24, 2007), What is a pesticide? epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest (animal). Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector (biology) for disease or cause a nuisance. Many pesticides are poisonous to humans.

Types of Pesticides use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used herbicides in the United States. (From USGS Pesticide Use Maps)There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.

Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides, although the distinction can sometimes blur.

Broad-spectrum pesticides are those that kill an array of species, while narrow-spectrum, or selective pesticides only kill a small group of species.Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.

A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. This movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers may kill needed pollinators such as bees.

Most pesticides work by poisoning pests.Cornell University. Toxicity of pesticides. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 4. Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.

Uses and benefits Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful. The benefits of pesticides: A story worth telling. Purdue.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can prevent vehicular accidents by clearing roadside trees and brush, which may block visibility for drivers. They can also kill invasive weeds in parks and wilderness areas which may cause natural environment damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.Helfrich, LA, Weigmann, DL, Hipkins, P, and Stinson, ER (June 1996), Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mold can damage structures such as houses. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable and may increase quality of life and protect property and the environment.

Pesticides save farmers money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the US, farmers get an estimated four-fold return on money they spend on pesticides.Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

In 2006, the World Health Organization suggested the resumption of the limited use of DDT to fight malaria.World Health Organization (September 15, 2006), WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria. Retrieved on September 13, 2007. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where mosquitoes are prevalent. Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT." Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and typhus.

In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools. About 70% of the pesticides sold in the US are used in agriculture.

History Since before 2500 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, Mercury (element) and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables.Miller, GT (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5

In 1939, Paul Hermann Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world.

In the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread.Daly H, Doyen JT, and Purcell AH III (1998), Introduction to insect biology and diversity, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. Chapter 14, Pages 279-300. Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era."Graeme Murphy (December 1 2005), Resistance Management - Pesticide Rotation. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2.5 million tons (2.3 million metric tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year. Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing.

In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by killing mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects.Lobe, J (Sept 16, 2006), "WHO urges DDT for malaria control Strategies," Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

Regulation In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. Willson, Harold R (February 23, 1996), Pesticide Regulations. University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. For example, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class.

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985.

Two other efforts to regulate international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among countries participating in the initiative. Both agreements operate on a voluntary basis.

Reading and following label directions is required by law in countries such as the US and in limited parts of the rest of the world.

In the US, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was first passed in 1947, giving the United States Department of Agriculture responsibility for regulating pesticides. In 1972, FIFRA underwent a major revision and transferred responsibility of pesticide regulation to the Environmental Protection Agency and shifted emphasis to protection of the environment and public health.

Environmental effects Use of pesticides can have unintended effects on the environment. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including nontarget species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food. Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded, when it is sprayed aerially, and when it is sprayed into water to kill algae.Tashkent (1998), Part 1. Conditions and provisions for developing a national strategy for biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan of Republic of Uzbekistan. Prepared by the National Biodiversity Strategy Project Steering Committee with the Financial Assistance of The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and Technical Assistance of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved on September 17, 2007. The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the particular chemical's properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its vapor pressure, its water solubility, and its resistance to being broken down over time. Factors in the soil, such as its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect the amount of pesticide that will leave the area.

Some pesticides contribute to global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer.Reynolds, JD (1997), International pesticide trade: Is there any hope for the effective regulation of controlled substances? Florida State University Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law, Volume 131. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

Air Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them.Cornell University. Pesticides in the environment. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 6. Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on 2007-10-11. Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilisation and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife.National Park Service. US Department of the Interior. (August 1, 2006), Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Park: Air quality -- Airborne synthetic chemicals. Nps.gov. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas,US Environmental Protection Agency (September 11th, 2007), Pesticide registration (PR) notice 2001-X Draft: Spray and dust drift label statements for pesticide products. Epa.gov. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. or pesticides may adhesion to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles.Environment Canada (September-October 2001), Agricultural pesticides and the atmosphere. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does. Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas.Science Daily (November 19, 1999), Evergreens help block spread of pesticide from crop fields. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.

Pesticides that are sprayed onto fields and used to fumigation soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called ozone, accounting for an estimated 6% of the total ozone production.UC IPM Online. (August 11, 2006), What’s up, Doc? Maybe less air pollution. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.

Water In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US Geological Survey.Gilliom, RJ, Barbash, JE, Crawford, GG, Hamilton, PA, Martin, JD, Nakagaki, N, Nowell, LH, Scott, JC, Stackelberg, PE, Thelin, GP, and Wolock, DM (February 15, 2007), The Quality of our nation’s waters: Pesticides in the nation’s streams and ground water, 1992–2001. Chapter 1, Page 4. US Geological Survey. Retrieved on September 13, 2007. Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater. Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater.Bingham, S (2007), Pesticides in rivers and groundwater. Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 2007-10-12.

Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.Hogan,, CM, Patmore L, Latshaw, G, Seidman, H, et al. (1973), Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, United States Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California.

There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or leach, through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect.States of Jersey (2007), Environmental protection and pesticide use. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. They may also be carried to water by soil erosion.Papendick RI, Elliott LF, and Dahlgren RB (1986), Environmental consequences of modern production agriculture: How can alternative agriculture address these issues and concerns? American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, Volume 1, Issue 1, Pages 3-10. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. Factors that affect a pesticide's ability to contaminate water include its water solubility, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, soil type, presence of a growing crop, and the method used to apply the chemical.Pedersen, TL (June 1997), Pesticide residues in drinking water. extoxnet.orst.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency sets Maximum Contamination Levels, or maximum allowable concentrations for individual pesticides in public bodies of water.Similarly, the government of the United Kingdom sets Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur.Bingham, S (2007), Pesticides exceeding environmental quality standards (EQS). The Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. The European Union also regulates maximum concentrations of pesticides in water.

Soil Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.USEPA (2007), Sources of common contaminants and their health effects. Epa.gov. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.

The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.

Plants Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil.Rockets, Rusty (June 8, 2007), Down On The Farm? Yields, Nutrients And Soil Quality. Scienceagogo.com. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertiliser every year.

Pesticide toxicity to bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that polinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder,{{cite web|author=Hackenberg D |url=http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc |title=Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007 |publisher=Plattform Imkerinnen — Austria |accessdate=2007-03-27 |date=2007-03-14 |language=English -->{{cite news| author = Wells, M | title = Vanishing bees threaten US crops | work = www.bbc.co.uk | publisher = ''[BBC News'' | date = March 11, 2007 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm | accessdate = 2007-09-19 | language = English -->{{cite web|author=Haefeker, Walter|url=http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/german_bee_monitoring.htm |title=Betrayed and sold out – German bee monitoring |accessdate=2007-10-10 |date=2000-08-12 |language=English -->{{cite web|author=Zeissloff, Eric|url=http://www.beekeeping.com/artikel/imidacloprid_1.htm |title=Schadet imidacloprid den bienen |accessdate=2007-10-10 |date=2001 |language=German--> in which worker bees from a [Beehive (beekeeping) or [Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill [honeybees, which act as pollinators. The [USDA and [USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.

Persistent organic pollutants Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and thus remain in the environment for years.Ritter L, Solomon KR, and Forget J, Stemeroff M, and O'Leary C. Persistent organic pollutants: An Assessment Report on: DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dioxins and Furans. Prepared for The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). Retrieved on September 16, 2007. Some pesticides, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene, are considered POPs. POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. The chemicals also have the ability to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, and can bioconcentrate (i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humansCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Pesticides. cdc.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. by disruption in the endocrine system, reproductive system, and immune systems; cancer; neurobehavioral disorders, infertility and Mutagenesis, although very little is currently known about these chronic effects. Some POPs have been banned, while others continue to be used.

Animals Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to biota, and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their Biodiversity Action Plans.

Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food after spraying, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.

Widespread application of pesticides can eliminate food sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet, or starve. Poisoning from pesticides can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides. Some pesticides can bioaccumulation, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that about 20% of the endangered species and threatened species in the US are jeopardized by use of pesticides.

Birds Birds are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use. Rachel Carson's landmark book Silent Spring dealt with the topic of loss of bird species due to bioaccumulation of pesticides in their tissues. There is evidence that birds are continuing to be harmed by pesticide use. In the farmland of United Kingdom, populations of ten different species of birds have declined by 10 million breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, a phenomenon thought to have resulted from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed.Kerbs JR, Wilson JD, Bradbury RB, and Siriwardena GM (August 12, 1999), The second silent spring. Commentary in Nature, Volume 400, Pages 611-612. Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds are now threatened. Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used. In another example, some types of fungicides used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill off earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.

Some pesticides come in granular form, and birds an other wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide is enough to kill a small bird. Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. Wildlife & pesticides - Peanuts. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 2007-10-11.

The herbicide paraquat, when sprayed onto bird eggs, causes growth abnormalities in embryos and reduces the number of chicks that hatch successfully, but most herbicides do not directly cause much harm to birds. Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that over 67 million birds are killed by pesticides each year in the US.

Aquatic life Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.Toughill K (1999), The summer the rivers died: Toxic runoff from potato farms is poisoning P.E.I. Originally published in Toronto Star Atlantic Canada Bureau. Retrieved on September 17, 2007. For example, in Montague P.E.I., nine "fish kills" happened in one year: every fish, snake, and snail was killed in a river called Sutherland's Hole near potato farms from which herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides ran off after heavy rains. Pesticide-related fish kills are frequently unreported and likely underestimated.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants rot and use up the water's oxygen, suffocating the fish. Some herbicides, such as copper sulfite, that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at concentrations similar to those used to kill the plants. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease, and increased failure to avoid predators.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill off plants on which fish depend for their habitat.

Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton, the main source of food for young fish.Pesticide Action Network North America (June 4, 1999), Pesticides threaten birds and fish in California. PANUPS. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. Pesticides can kill off the insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators.

The USDA and USFWS estimate that between 6 and 14 million fish are killed by pesticides each year in the US.

The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.

Amphibians Some scientists believe that certain common pesticides already exist at levels capable of killing amphibians in California.ScienceDaily (June 25, 2007), Breakdown products of widely used pesticides are acutely lethal to amphibians, study finds. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 17, 2007. They warn that the breakdown products of these pesticides can be 10 to 100 times more toxic to amphibians than the original pesticides. Direct contact of sprays of some pesticides (either by drift from nearby applications or accidental or deliberate sprays) can be highly lethal to amphibians. University of Pittsburgh A Canadian study showed that exposing tadpoles to endosulfan, an organochloride pesticide at levels that are likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.Raloff, J (September 5, 1998) Common pesticide clobbers amphibians. Science News, Volume 154, Number 10, Page 150. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.

US scientists have found that some pesticides used in farming disrupt the nervous systems of frogs, and that use of these pesticides is correlated with a decline in the population of frogs in the Sierra Nevada (U.S.).Cone M (December 6, 2000), A wind-borne threat to Sierra frogs: A study finds that pesticides used on farms in the San Joaquin Valley damage the nervous systems of amphibians in Yosemite and elsewhere. L.A. Times Retrieved on September 17, 2007. In the past several decades, decline in amphibian populations has been occurring all over the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part. Being downwind from agricultural land on which pesticides are used has been linked to the decline in population of threatened species frog species in California.ScienceDaily (November 28, 2002), More evidence to link pesticide use with amphibian decline. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 17, 2007.

Mixtures of multiple pesticides appear to have a cumulative toxic effect on frogs. Tadpoles from ponds with multiple pesticides present in the water take longer to metamorphosis into frogs and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators. Science Daily (February 3, 2006), Pesticide combinations imperil frogs, probably contribute to amphibian decline. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

In Minnesota, pesticide use has been causally linked to congenital deformities in frogs such as eye, mouth, and limb malformations.Meersman T (October 25, 1999), Studies link frog deformities to pesticides. Star Tribune Retrieved on September 18, 2007. Researchers in California found that similar deformities in frogs in the US and Canada may have been caused by breakdown products from pesticides which themselves did not pose a threat.Science Daily (May 4, 1998), Pesticides linked to widespread cases of deformed frogs. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-12.

The herbicide atrazine has been shown to turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their ability to reproduce.

Pest resistance Pests may Evolution to become resistant to pesticides. Many pests will initially be very susceptible to pesticides, but some with slight variations in their genetic makeup are resistant and therefore survive to reproduce. Through natural selection, the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide.

Pest resistance to a pesticide is commonly managed through pesticide rotation, which involves alternating among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance.

Tankmixing pesticides is the combination of two or more pesticides with different modes of action in order to improve individual pesticide application results and delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance.

Pest rebound and secondary pest outbreaks Non-target organisms, organisms that the pesticides are not intended to kill, can be severely impacted by use of the chemicals. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a beneficial insect predator or parasite, an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. A study comparing biological pest control and use of pyrethroid insecticide for diamondback moths, a major cabbage family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect.Muckenfuss AE, Shepard BM, Ferrer ER, Natural mortality of diamondback moth in coastal South Carolina Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center. Likewise, pesticides sprayed in an effort to control adult mosquitoes, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors. This phenomenon, wherein the population of a pest species rebounds to equal or greater numbers than it had before pesticide use, is called pest resurgence and can be linked to elimination of predators and other natural enemies of the pest.

Loss of predator species can also lead to a related phenomenon called secondary pest outbreaks, an increase in problems from species which were not originally very damaging pests due to loss of their predators or parasites. An estimated third of the 300 most damaging insects in the US were originally secondary pests and only became a major problem after the use of pesticides. In both pest resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks, the natural enemies have been found to be more susceptible to the pesticides than the pests themselves, in some cases causing the pest population to be higher than it was before the use of pesticide.

Health effects Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use.US Environmental Protection Agency (August 30, 2007), Pesticides: Health and Safety. National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3.

Farmers and workers There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe Pesticide poisoning, about 18,000 of whom die.

Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government.OneWorld Radio (December 4, 2005), Interview. oneworld.net. WRENmedia. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

Organophosphate pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.Jaga K, Dharmani C. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Pan American Journal of Public Health Volume 14, Issue 3, Pages 171–185. PMID 14653904. These are associated with acute health problems for workers that handle the chemicals, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689. Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatology conditions,Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Mellen BG. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health, Volume 9, Issue 3, Pages 221–232. PMID 12970952. O'Malley MA. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. Occupational Medicine Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 327–345. PMID 9220489. cancer,Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 105, Issue 10, Pages 1068–1077. PMID 9349828. Clinical depression, neurologic deficits,Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longsteth WT, Checkoway H. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1):91–95. miscarriages, and birth defects.Engel LS, O'Meara ES, Schwartz SM. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, Volume 26, Issue 3, Pages 193–198. PMID 10901110.Cordes DH, Rea DF. 1988. Health hazards of farming. American Family Physician 38:233–243 Das R, Steege A, Baron S, Beckman J, Harrison R. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 303–312. PMID 11783860.Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 107, Supplement 3, Pages 409–419. PMID 10346990.Garcia AM. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, Volume 44, Issue 6, Pages 584–594. PMID 14635235.
Moses M. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37:115–130 Schwartz DA, Newsum LA, Heifetz RM. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 12:51–54 Stallones L, Beseler C. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97 Strong, LL, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Islas I. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606 Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL. 2003. Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642 Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers.Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.Kamel F, Hoppin JA. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect 112:950–958.

Consumers There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled (see Pesticide#Pesticide residues in food, below). In the US, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the US EPA and are considered safe.US Environmental Protection Agency (March 27, 2007), Pesticides and food: What the pesticide residue limits are on food. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its break-down products, the amount and frequency of pesticide application, and how much of the pesticide (i.e., the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared.US Environmental Protection Agency (July 24th, 2007), Setting tolerances for pesticide residues in foods. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water. Rabideau, Christine L. Multiple pesticide exposure: Immunotoxicty and oxidative tress 2001

A new study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides. Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s


A study published by the United States National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.National Research Council (1993), Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-04875-3. Retrieved on 2007-10-11. A study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphate pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with organic food (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.

In the US, the National Academy of Sciences estimates that between 4,000 and 20,000 cases of cancer are caused per year by pesticide residues in food in allowable amounts.

The Pesticide Data Program, a program started by the United States Department of Agriculture is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:{{cite paper| author = Pesticide Data Program | title = Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005 | version = | publisher = USDA | date = February 2006 | url = http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate =2007-09-15 -->

For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:{| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center"! Fresh Fruit and
Vegetables !! Number of
Samples Analyzed !! Samples with
Residues Detected !! Percent of
Samples with
Detections !! Different
Pesticides
Detected !! Different
Residues
Detected !! Total Residue
Detections|-align="center"! Apples| 774 || 727 || 98 || 33 || 41 || 2,619|-align="center"! Lettuce| 743 || 657 || 88 || 47 || 57 || 1,985|-align="center"! Pears| 741 || 643 || 87 || 31 || 35 || 1,309|-align="center"! Orange Juice| 186 || 93 || 50 || 3 || 3 || 94|}

They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that: These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent contained more than 1 pesticide. - page 34.

The Environmental Working Group used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the United States Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.FoodNews (2006), Test Results: Complete Data Set. Environmental Working Group, ewg.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

The public Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public.US Environmental Protection Agency (December 1999), Spray drift of pesticides. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

The Bhopal disaster occurred when a pesticide plant released 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, intermediate chemical in the production of some pesticides. The disaster immediately killed nearly 3,000 people and ultimately caused at least 15,000 deaths.{{cite web ] | title =1984: Hundreds die in Bhopal chemical accident | work = On This Day: 3 December | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2698000/2698709.stm-->

Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects of pesticides. Noyes, K Banish Pesticides from your garden. charityguide.org. Retrieved on September 15, 2007. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.Natural Resources Defense Council (October 1998), Health hazards of pesticides.

Peer-reviewed studies now suggest Neurotoxicity effects on developing animals from organophosphate pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, lower birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The EPA finished a 10 year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. Melissa Lee Phillips (2006 October), Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children? Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 114, Issue 10, Pages A592–A595.Pulaski A (May 26, 2006), EPA workers blast agency's rulings on deadly pesticides: Letter sent to EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson by unions representing 9,00

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